Publications by year
In Press
Inceoglu I, Arnold KA, Leroy H, Lang J, Stephan U (In Press). FROM MICROSCOPIC TO MACROSCOPIC PERSPECTIVES AND BACK THE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP AND HEALTH/WELL-BEING. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology
Inceoglu I (In Press). How abduction can help produce timelier technology research. Industrial and Organizational Psychology
2023
Hartlaub D, Inceoglu I, Hernandez Bark AS, Kark R (2023). Is it Stressful at the Top?. In (Ed)
Organizational Stress and Well-Being, 93-122.
DOI.
2022
Wood S, Michaelides G, Inceoglu I, Niven K, Kelleher A, Hurren E, Daniels K (2022). Satisfaction with one's job and working at home in the COVID‐19 pandemic: a two‐wave study.
Applied Psychology DOI.
Sparr JL, Wihler A, Ellen BP, Inceoglu I, Li Z, Rieg J (2022). Uncovering the Social and Emotional Aspects of Leadership and Followership.
Academy of Management Proceedings,
2022(1).
DOI.
2021
Wood SJ, Michaelides G, Inceoglu I, Hurren ET, Daniels K, Niven K (2021). Homeworking, Well-Being and the COVID-19 Pandemic: a Diary Study.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,
18(14), 7575-7575.
Abstract:
Homeworking, Well-Being and the COVID-19 Pandemic: a Diary Study
As a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, many governments encouraged or mandated homeworking wherever possible. This study examines the impact of this public health initiative on homeworkers’ well-being. It explores if the general factors such as job autonomy, demands, social support and work–nonwork conflict, which under normal circumstances are crucial for employees’ well-being, are outweighed by factors specific to homeworking and the pandemic as predictors of well-being. Using data from four-week diary studies conducted at two time periods in 2020 involving university employees in the UK, we assessed five factors that may be associated with their well-being: job characteristics, the work–home interface, home location, the enforced nature of the homeworking, and the pandemic context. Multi-level analysis confirms the relationship between four of the five factors and variability in within-person well-being, the exception being variables connected to the enforced homeworking. The results are very similar in both waves. A smaller set of variables explained between-person variability: psychological detachment, loneliness and job insecurity in both periods. Well-being was lower in the second than the first wave, as loneliness increased and the ability to detach from work declined. The findings highlight downsides of homeworking, will be relevant for employees’ and employers’ decisions about working arrangements post-pandemic, and contribute to the debate about the limits of employee well-being models centred on job characteristics.
Abstract.
DOI.
2020
Lee A, Inceoglu I, Hauser O, Greene M (2020). Determining Causal Relationships in Leadership Research Using Machine Learning: the Powerful Synergy of Experiments and Data Science.
The Leadership Quarterly,
NA, NA-NA.
DOI.
2018
Inceoglu I, Selenko E, McDowall A, Schlachter S (2018). (How) do Work Placements Work? Scrutinizing the Quantitative Evidence for a Theory-Driven Future Research Agenda.
Journal of Vocational Behavior DOI.
Inceoglu I, Thomas G, Chu C, Plans D, Gerbasi A (2018). Leadership behavior and employee well-being: an integrated review. the Institute of Work Psychology International Conference. 19th - 22nd Jun 2018.
Inceoglu I, Thomas G, Chu C, Plans D, Gerbasi A (2018). Leadership behavior and employee well-being: an integrated review and a future research agenda.
Leadership Quarterly DOI.
2017
Ryan AM, Reeder MC, Golubovich J, Grand J, Inceoglu I, Bartram D, Derous E, Nikolaou I, Yao X (2017). Culture and Testing Practices: is the World Flat?.
Applied Psychology,
66(3), 434-467.
Abstract:
Culture and Testing Practices: is the World Flat?
There has been much speculation regarding the influence of cultural norms on the acceptance and use of personnel selection testing. This study examined the cross-level direct effects of four societal cultural variables (performance orientation, future orientation, uncertainty avoidance, and tightness–looseness) on selection practices of organisations in 23 countries. A total of 1,153 HR professionals responded to a survey regarding testing practices in hiring contexts. Overall, little evidence of a connection between cultural practices and selection practices emerged. Implications of these findings for personnel selection and cross-cultural research as well as directions for future work in this area are described.
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DOI.
Brown A, Inceoglu I, Lin Y (2017). Preventing Rater Biases in 360-Degree Feedback by Forcing Choice.
Organizational Research Methods,
20(1), 121-148.
Abstract:
Preventing Rater Biases in 360-Degree Feedback by Forcing Choice
We examined the effects of response biases on 360-degree feedback using a large sample (N = 4,675) of organizational appraisal data. Sixteen competencies were assessed by peers, bosses, and subordinates of 922 managers as well as self-assessed using the Inventory of Management Competencies (IMC) administered in two formats—Likert scale and multidimensional forced choice. Likert ratings were subject to strong response biases, making even theoretically unrelated competencies correlate highly. Modeling a latent common method factor, which represented nonuniform distortions similar to those of “ideal-employee” factor in both self- and other assessments, improved validity of competency scores as evidenced by meaningful second-order factor structures, better interrater agreement, and better convergent correlations with an external personality measure. Forced-choice rankings modeled with Thurstonian item response theory (IRT) yielded as good construct and convergent validities as the bias-controlled Likert ratings and slightly better rater agreement. We suggest that the mechanism for these enhancements is finer differentiation between behaviors in comparative judgements and advocate the operational use of the multidimensional forced-choice response format as an effective bias prevention method.
Abstract.
DOI.
Cropley M, Plans D, Morelli D, Sütterlin S, Inceoglu I, Thomas G, Chu C (2017). The Association between Work-Related Rumination and Heart Rate Variability: a Field Study.
Front Hum Neurosci,
11Abstract:
The Association between Work-Related Rumination and Heart Rate Variability: a Field Study.
The objective of this study was to examine the association between perseverative cognition in the form of work-related rumination, and heart rate variability (HRV). We tested the hypothesis that high ruminators would show lower vagally mediated HRV relative to low ruminators during their leisure time. Individuals were classified as being low (n = 17) or high ruminators (n = 19), using the affective scale on the work-related rumination measure. HRV was assessed using a wrist sensor band (Microsoft Band 2). HRV was sampled between 8 pm and 10 pm over three workday evenings (Monday to Wednesday) while individuals carried out their normal evening routines. Compared to the low ruminators, high affective ruminators demonstrated lower HRV in the form of root mean square successive differences (RMSSDs), relative to the low ruminators, indicating lower parasympathetic activity. There was no significant difference in heart rate, or activity levels between the two groups during the recording periods. The current findings of this study may have implications for the design and delivery of interventions to help individuals unwind post work and to manage stress more effectively. Limitations and implications for future research are discussed.
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Author URL.
DOI.
Schlachter S, Mcdowall A, Cropley M, Inceoglu I (2017). Voluntary Work-related Technology Use during Non-work Time: a Narrative Synthesis of Empirical Research and Research Agenda.
International Journal of Management ReviewsAbstract:
Voluntary Work-related Technology Use during Non-work Time: a Narrative Synthesis of Empirical Research and Research Agenda
© 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley. &. Sons Ltd. The Internet and mobilization of information and communication technologies (ICTs) have made non-manual work increasingly portable and remotely accessible. As a result, a considerable number of employees use their ICTs to engage in work-related tasks during designated non-work time, even without contractual obligation. However, existing research on such voluntary work-related ICT use remains fragmented and spread across disciplines. The authors conducted a narrative review of 56 studies to identify themes in existing research, synthesize the evidence base and identify gaps in understanding. They identify five themes: (1) Social-normative organizational context, (2) Job-related characteristics and work processes, (3) Person characteristics, (4) Designated non-work time and well-being, and (5) Empowerment/Enslavement Paradox. A conceptual model of voluntary ICT use is developed by integrating the identified themes with existing organizational research, outlining the relationships between the identified themes and voluntary ICT use. The discussion emphasizes the need for more conceptual clarity on voluntary ICT use and related constructs, and for the integration of different disciplines and methodological approaches to advance knowledge in the field. The authors further identify person-centred research as a critical future avenue to explore different ICT user types. Additionally, more research into the mechanisms and moderating influences regarding voluntary ICT use and its outcomes is considered advisable to advance knowledge on the Empowerment/Enslavement Paradox and its potential resolution. The paper concludes with preliminary implications to inform practice, addressing the need for employers to provide control over voluntary ICT use and employees enacting this control.
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DOI.
Warr P, Inceoglu I (2017). Work Orientations, Well-Being and Job Content of Self-Employed and Employed Professionals.
Work, Employment and Society,
32(2), 292-311.
Abstract:
Work Orientations, Well-Being and Job Content of Self-Employed and Employed Professionals
Drawing on psychology-derived theories and methods, a questionnaire survey compared principal kinds of work orientation, job content and mental well-being between self-employed and organisationally employed professional workers. Self-employment was found to be particularly associated with energised well-being in the form of job engagement. The presence in self-employment of greater challenge, such as an enhanced requirement for personal innovation, accounted statistically for self-employed professionals’ greater job engagement, and self-employed professionals more strongly valued personal challenge than did professionals employed in an organisation. However, no between-role differences occurred in respect of supportive job features such as having a comfortable workplace. Differences in well-being, job content and work orientations were found primarily in comparison between self-employees and organisational non-managers. The study emphasises the need to distinguish conceptually and empirically between different forms of work orientation, job content and well-being, and points to the value of incorporating psychological thinking in some sociological research.
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2016
Inceoglu I, Selenko E, McDowall A, Schlachter S (2016). (How) Do Work Placements Work? Scrutinizing the Quantitative Evidence with a Systematic Review.
Academy of Management Proceedings,
2016(1).
DOI.
Roe RA, Inceoglu I (2016). Measuring States and Traits in Motivation and Emotion. In (Ed)
The ITC International Handbook of Testing and Assessment, 63-88.
DOI.
2015
Joubert T, Inceoglu I, Bartram D, Dowdeswell K, Lin Y (2015). A comparison of the psychometric properties of the forced choice and likert scale versions of a personality instrument.
International Journal of Selection and Assessment,
23(1), 92-97.
Abstract:
A comparison of the psychometric properties of the forced choice and likert scale versions of a personality instrument
The present research investigated if an item response theory (IRT)-scored forced-choice personality questionnaire has the same normative data structures as a similar version that uses a 5-point Likert scale instead. The study was conducted using a sample of 349 training delegates who completed both an IRT-scored forced-choice and a normative single-stimulus version of the questionnaire. Results largely supported the scaling properties, measurement precision, and equivalence of the data structures of the two scoring methods.
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DOI.
Warr P, Inceoglu I (2015). Job features, job values, and affective strength.
European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,
24(1), 101-112.
Abstract:
Job features, job values, and affective strength
Job values and job characteristics are widely assumed to interact with each other, in that job-holders’ preferences are thought to moderate associations of job content with well-being. However, an examination of previous research revealed considerable between-feature inconsistency in findings about moderation, and a new contingency variable was introduced to account for that inconsistency. This construct, labelled “affective strength”, was defined and investigated through the spread of a feature’s desirability in a studied sample. A three-sample examination of feature-by-value interactions across a broad set of job features confirmed that moderation by job values is often weak and that patterns vary between features. As predicted, associations between job characteristics and well-being were found to be significantly more influenced by worker preference when those characteristics were of lower affective strength—having greater variance in desirability. Models of job design need to incorporate worker preferences but also the varying influence of those preferences—in effect, through a second-order interaction.
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DOI.
Ryan AM, Inceoglu I, Bartram D, Golubovich J, Grand J, Reeder M, Derous E, Nikolaou I, Yao X (2015). Trends in testing: Highlights of a global survey. In (Ed) Employee Recruitment, Selection, and Assessment: Contemporary Issues for Theory and Practice, 136-153.
2014
Warr P, Bindl UK, Parker SK, Inceoglu I (2014). Four-quadrant investigation of job-related affects and behaviours.
European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,
23(3), 342-363.
Abstract:
Four-quadrant investigation of job-related affects and behaviours
Emphasizing differences in activation as well as valence, six studies across a range of situations examined relations between types of job-related core affect and 13 self-reported work behaviours. A theory-based measure of affect was developed, and its four-quadrant structure was found to be supported across studies. Also consistent with hypotheses, high-activation pleasant affect was more strongly correlated with positive behaviours than were low-activation pleasant feelings, and those associations tended to be greatest for discretionary behaviours in contrast to routine task proficiency. Additionally as predicted, unpleasant job-related affects that had low rather than high activation were more strongly linked to the negative work behaviours examined. Theory and practice would benefit from greater differentiation between affects and between behaviours. © 2014 Copyright Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.
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DOI.
He J, Bartram D, Inceoglu I, van de Vijver FJR (2014). Response Styles and Personality Traits: a Multilevel Analysis.
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
45(7), 1028-1045.
Abstract:
Response Styles and Personality Traits: a Multilevel Analysis
In two studies, we examined the shared and unique meaning of acquiescent, extreme, midpoint, and socially desirable responding in association with the Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ32), a forced-choice format personality measure designed to be less affected by these response styles, compared with personality inventories with Likert-type scales. Country-level response style indexes were derived from six waves of the International Social Survey Programme and from a meta-analysis of a social desirability scale. In the country-level correlational analysis, the four response styles formed a general response style (GRS) factor which was positively associated with (a) dominance (vs. submission) in interpersonal relationships, (b) competitive (vs. modest and democratic) feelings and emotions, and (c) data rational thinking. In a multilevel analysis, age showed a positive and education a negative effect on the individual-level GRS. Negative effects of country-level socioeconomic development and individualism and positive effects of competitiveness and data rational thinking on the individual-level response style were found. We conclude that country-level response styles are systematically associated with country personality measured by the OPQ32, suggesting that they can be viewed as having substantive meaning (i.e. culturally influenced response amplification vs. moderation). Implications are discussed. © the Author(s) 2014.
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DOI.
Segers J, Inceoglu I, Finkelstein L (2014). The age cube of work. In (Ed)
Generational Diversity at Work: New Research Perspectives, 11-36.
DOI.
2013
Bywater J, Affourtit M, Inceoglu I (2013). Moving a monolith: Cultural change and the Chinese work personality.
,
5(1), 9-12.
DOI.
2012
Inceoglu I, Segers J, Bartram D (2012). Age-related differences in work motivation.
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,
85(2), 300-329.
Abstract:
Age-related differences in work motivation
This paper examines age-related differences in work motivation in two samples of 9,388 and 2,512 individuals who completed a comprehensive motivation questionnaire for selection or development purposes. In the first sample, age differences were examined by controlling for gender and investigating whether relationships between age and motivation were non-linear. Statistically significant relationships between motivation and age were found for most motivation scales, explaining up to 12% of the variance in specific scales. The second sample was used to confirm these results and to determine whether differences on these motivation scales could be explained by additional demographic variables, which were not available in the first sample. When controlling for demographic variables, such as gender, managerial experience, and university education, the pattern of results was similar in the second data set although effects were smaller. Results generally support propositions from the literature, which suggest a shift in people's motives rather than a general decline in motivation with age: older employees were less motivated by extrinsically but more by intrinsically rewarding job features. ©2011 the British Psychological Society.
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DOI.
Segers J, Inceoglu I (2012). Exploring supportive and developmental career management through business strategies and coaching.
Human Resource Management,
51(1), 99-120.
Abstract:
Exploring supportive and developmental career management through business strategies and coaching
The shift toward individualistic career management requires a supportive and developmental career approach. Using coaching practices as a manifestation of such an approach, this study reports on coaching and other career practices that are part of supportive and developmental career management in a Belgium sample (n = 154). Three other types of career management were identified as well. Supportive and developmental career management was most present in organizations that had a past or current prospector strategy, and was the least present in past or current defenders. The type of business strategy organizations indicated to pursue in the future did not have an influence on the type of career management they currently had. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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DOI.
Inceoglu I, Bartram D (2012). Global Leadership: the Myth of Multicultural Competency.
Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
5(2), 216-218.
DOI.
Inceoglu I, Bartram D (2012). Global Leadership: the Myth of Multicultural Competency.
INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY-PERSPECTIVES ON SCIENCE AND PRACTICE,
5(2), 216-218.
Author URL.
Warr P, Inceoglu I (2012). Job engagement, job satisfaction, and contrasting associations with person-job fit.
J Occup Health Psychol,
17(2), 129-138.
Abstract:
Job engagement, job satisfaction, and contrasting associations with person-job fit.
Forms of well-being vary in their activation as well as valence, differing in respect of energy-related arousal in addition to whether they are negative or positive. Those differences suggest the need to refine traditional assumptions that poor person-job fit causes lower well-being. More activated forms of well-being were proposed to be associated with poorer, rather than better, want-actual fit, since greater motivation raises wanted levels of job features and may thus reduce fit with actual levels. As predicted, activated well-being (illustrated by job engagement) and more quiescent well-being (here, job satisfaction) were found to be associated with poor fit in opposite directions--positively and negatively, respectively. Theories and organizational practices need to accommodate the partly contrasting implications of different forms of well-being.
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Author URL.
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2011
Inceoglu I, Warr P (2011). Personality and job engagement.
Journal of Personnel Psychology,
10(4), 177-181.
Abstract:
Personality and job engagement
The affective-motivational state of job engagement has been shown to differ between jobs with different characteristics, but its possible links with workers' personal attributes have rarely been studied. Engagement was predicted to be a primary function of personality factors and sub-factors which match its affective and motivational elements, namely Emotional Stability and more energized forms of Extraversion and Conscientiousness. Predictions were confirmed in correlational and regression analyses across three studies. Theoretical frameworks in this area should extend to personal characteristics in addition to covering job content, and practical benefits can follow from engagement-relevant staff selection and development as well as from appropriate job design. © 2011 Hogrefe Publishing.
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Segers J, Vloeberghs D, Henderickx E, Inceoglu I (2011). Structuring and Understanding the Coaching Industry: the Coaching Cube.
Academy of Management Learning and Education,
10(2), 204-221.
DOI.
Segers J, Vloeberghs D, Henderickx E, Inceoglu I (2011). Structuring and understanding the coaching industry: the coaching cube.
Academy of Management Learning and Education,
10(2), 204-221.
Abstract:
Structuring and understanding the coaching industry: the coaching cube
We offer a theoretical coaching cube that helps to structure and understand the coaching industry. The three dimensions of the cube refer to (1) coaching agendas (what); (2) coaches' characteristics (who); and (3) coaching approaches/schools (how). Each dimension is described by discussing the academic literature surrounding it. Using an economic and psychological perspective, we explore which combinations of these three dimensions are more likely to be observed in the business world. Next, we present three studies from Belgium that empirically explore the existence of the different combinations. Finally, we discuss theoretical and practical implications of the coaching cube. © 2011 Academy of Management Learning & Education.
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2010
Fleck S, Inceoglu I (2010). A comprehensive framework for understanding and predicting engagement. In (Ed) Handbook of Employee Engagement: Perspectives, Issues, Research and Practice, 31-42.
Fleck S, Inceoglu I (2010). Chapter 3: a Comprehensive Framework for Understanding and Predicting Engagement. In (Ed)
Handbook of Employee Engagement.
DOI.
Inceoglu I, Fleck S (2010). Chapter 6: Engagement as a Motivational Construct. In (Ed)
Handbook of Employee Engagement.
DOI.
Inceoglu I, Fleck S (2010). Engagement as a motivational construct. In (Ed) Handbook of Employee Engagement: Perspectives, Issues, Research and Practice, 74-86.
Segers J, Inceoglu I, Vloeberghs D, Bartram D, Henderickx E (2010). Erratum to "Protean and boundaryless careers: a study on potential motivators" [Journal of Vocational Behavior 37 (2) (2008) 212-230].
Journal of Vocational Behavior,
77(1), 154-155.
DOI.
2009
Inceoglu I, Segers J, Bartram D, Vloeberghs D (2009). Age differences in work motivation in a sample from five northern European countries.
Zeitschrift fur Personalpsychologie,
8(2), 59-70.
Abstract:
Age differences in work motivation in a sample from five northern European countries
This paper investigates the relationship between employee age and levels of trait-like dispositional motivation in a sample of 7644 individuals from five Northern European countries (Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden) who completed a comprehensive motivation questionnaire for selection or development purposes. Age differences in motivation were examined by controlling for demographic variables and testing for non-linear relationships. On the whole, effects were small, with age explaining up to 7 % incremental variance in specific motivation scales. Small effects were found for five motivation scales, which indicated a tendency for older employees in this sample to be more motivated by intrinsically rewarding job features but less motivated by features that entail low perceived utility or that are mainly extrinsically rewarding. Results were generally consistent across the five Nordic countries but in countries where the average retirement age is higher (i. e. in late-exit cultures) the decline was lower for progression. The findings generally support propositions from the literature which suggest a shift in people's motivators rather than a general decline in motivation with age. As effect sizes are small, however, the differences observed for the age groups investigated in this sample are likely to have very little practical implications for human resource management. © 2009 by Hogrefe Verlag Göttingen.
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2008
Inceoglu I, Segers J, Bartram D, Vloeberghs D (2008). Age differences in work motivation.
Author URL.
Inceoglu I, Gasteiger RM, Anderson N, Bartram D, Port R, Zibarras L, Woods S (2008). Are conscientious individuals less innovative? on the interplay of personality and innovation potential.
Author URL.
Inceoglu I, Warr P, Bartram D (2008). Personality and work values.
Author URL.
Segers J, Inceoglu I, Vloeberghs D, Bartram D, Henderickx E (2008). Protean and boundaryless careers: a study on potential motivators.
Journal of Vocational Behavior,
73(2), 212-230.
Abstract:
Protean and boundaryless careers: a study on potential motivators
This paper conceptually links hypothesized scales of the Motivation Questionnaire (SHL (1992). Motivation questionnaire: Manual and users' guide. Thames Ditton: SHL) to the underlying dimensions of the protean (values-driven and self-directedness) and boundaryless career (physical and psychological mobility) attitudes. Results of regression-analyses (N = 13,000) confirmed most of the hypotheses in terms of the influence of gender, age, education, and managerial experience on motivators linked to the underlying dimensions. A cluster analysis that was conducted to explore how many profiles can be observed when matching work motives to the protean and boundaryless careers, resulted in four motivational groups (Protean career architects, Trapped/lost, Hired/hired hand, and Curious/wanderer). The clusters are discussed in light of the current career literature and provide empirical support for the latest theorizing about the protean and boundaryless career models. Managerial implications and directions for future research are offered. © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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2007
Inceoglu I, Bartram D (2007). The validity of personality questionnaires: the importance of the criterion measure.
Zeitschrift fur Personalpsychologie,
6(4), 160-173.
Abstract:
The validity of personality questionnaires: the importance of the criterion measure
Personality and ability measures have been generally accepted as good predictors of future job performance (e.g. Schmidt & Hunter, 1998) and are often used for selection and development. While the predictor domain has become well established in recent years with the acceptance of the Big Five and a range of valid personality maesures, the criterion measurement has been relatively neglected. In the present study an Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ)and three ability tests are used to predict job performance based on line-manager ratings. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate how validity is influenced by different ways of measuring job performance. It firstly focuses on the measurement of the construct of job performance by using specific competencies compared to a global job performance measure. Secondly, it examines how the reliability of different competency measures affects validity. Practical implications of the results for conducting validation studies are discussed. © Hogrefe Verlag, Göttingen 2007.
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2000
Inceoglu I, Franzen U, Backmund H, Gerlinghoff M (2000). Personality disorders in patients in a day-treatment programme for eating disorders.
European Eating Disorders Review,
8(1), 67-72.
Abstract:
Personality disorders in patients in a day-treatment programme for eating disorders
The present study examined the prevalence of DSM-III-R personality disorders (PDs) and levels of depressive symptoms in patients in a day-hospital programme for eating disorders. Sixty-five patients diagnosed with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa were administered the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire Revised (PDQ-R), the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). In total, 49.2 per cent of all patients had at least one PD diagnosis. No significant difference was found between patients with bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. Eating Disorder patients with at least one PD had higher scores on the BDI and three EDI subscales compared to patients without a PD. In general, the prevalence of Personality Disorders in the present sample tended to be closer to results quoted by studies with eating-disordered outpatients rather than inpatients. Axis I disorders may affect personality state measures. Copyright (C) 2000 John Wiley and Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.
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